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Table 1 Factors associated with psychological distress among people who use drugs in bivariate and multivariable logistic regression analyses (n = 1598)

From: Prevalence and social determinants of psychological distress among people who use drugs in Cambodia

Variables in the model

GHQ-12 ≤ 2 (n = 927)

GHQ-12 > 2 (n = 671)

Bivariate logistic regression

Multiple logistic regression

n (%)

n (%)

OR (95% CI)

AOR (95% CI)

Sex

 Female

298 (32.1)

298 (44.4)

Reference

Reference

 Male

629 (67.9)

373 (55.6)

0.59 (0.48–0.73)***

0.54 (0.41–0.69)***

Age group

  < 25

351 (37.8)

200 (29.8)

Reference

Reference

 25–34

380 (41.0)

300 (44.7)

1.38 (1.10–1.74)**

1.31 (1.00–1.72)*

  ≥ 35

196 (21.2)

171 (25.5)

1.53 (1.17–2.00)**

1.65 (1.18–2.32)**

Current marital status

 Married

349 (37.6)

251 (37.4)

Reference

Reference

 Never married

448 (48.3)

287 (42.8)

1.42 (1.06–1.90)*

1.01 (0.76–1.33)

 Divorced/separated

130 (14.1)

133 (19.8)

0.89 (0.71–1.11)

1.08 (0.78–1.49)

Level of formal education completed

 Primary education or none (0–6)

472 (50.9)

382 (56.9)

Reference

Reference

 Lower secondary education (7–9)

265 (28.6)

182 (27.1)

0.84 (0.67–1.07)

1.06 (0.82–1.37)

 Upper secondary or higher (≥ 10)

190 (20.5)

107 (15.9)

0.69 (0.53–0.91)**

0.90 (0.66–1.23)

Type of living arrangements

 With family/relatives

438 (47.2)

314 (46.8)

Reference

Reference

 On the streets

87 (9.4)

72 (10.7)

1.15 (0.82–1.63)

0.70 (0.46–1.06)

 In own dwelling

230 (24.8)

131 (19.5)

0.79 (0.61–1.03)

0.56 (0.41–0.76)***

 With friends

94 (10.2)

72 (10.8)

1.07 (0.76–1.50)

0.88 (0.61–1.27)

 Others

78 (8.4)

82 (12.2)

1.47 (1.04–2.06)***

1.11 (0.76–1.63)

Duration of drug use

  ≤ 2 years

584 (63.0)

380 (56.6)

Reference

Reference

 3–5 years

187 (20.2)

147 (21.9)

1.21 (0.94–1.55)

1.19 (0.90–1.57)

 6–9 years

54 (5.8)

44 (6.6)

1.25 (0.82–1.90)

1.07 (0.67–1.71)

  ≥ 10 years

102 (11.0)

100 (14.9)

1.51 (1.11–2.04)***

1.11 (0.75–1.63)

Had been sent to a drug rehabilitation center

 No

821 (88.6)

521 (77.6)

Reference

Reference

 Yes

106 (11.4)

150 (22.4)

2.23 (1.70–2.93)***

2.05 (1.47–2.85)***

Injection as mode of first drug use

 No

838 (90.4)

609 (90.8)

Reference

Reference

 Yes

89 (9.6)

62 (9.2)

0.95 (0.68–1.35)

0.57 (0.35–0.92)*

Had been sent to prison in the past 12 months

 No

834 (90.0)

583 (86.9)

Reference

Reference

 Yes

93 (10.0)

88 (13.1)

1.35 (0.99–1.84)

0.99 (0.69–1.43)

Had been slapped, kicked by parents/guardians

 No

477 (51.5)

250 (37.3)

Reference

Reference

 Yes

450 (48.5)

421 (62.7)

1.78 (1.45–2.18)***

1.13 (0.88–1.46)

Had been insulted by family members

 No

535 (57.7)

245 (36.5)

Reference

Reference

 Yes

392 (42.3)

426 (63.5)

2.37 (1.93–2.91)***

2.10 (1.63–2.71)***

Had been sexually harassed/abused by someone

 No

780 (84.1)

468 (69.7)

Reference

Reference

 Yes

147 (15.8)

203 (30.3)

2.3 (1.81–2.93)***

1.80 (1.38–2.35)***

Had someone taking care of them when they got sick

 No

86 (9.3)

83 (12.4)

Reference

Reference

 Yes

841 (90.7)

588 (87.6)

0.72 (0.53–0.99)*

0.69 (0.48–1.01)*

Had emotional support from family members

 No

124 (13.4)

111 (16.5)

Reference

Reference

 Yes

803 (86.6)

560 (83.5)

0.78 (0.59–1.03)

1.19 (0.86–1.65)

Injected drugs in the past 12 months

 No

769 (83.0)

531 (79.1)

Reference

Reference

 Yes

158 (17.0)

140 (20.9)

1.28 (0.99–1.65)

1.40 (0.95–2.06)

Current HIV status

 Negative

588 (63.4)

430 (64.1)

Reference

Reference

 Positive

31 (3.3)

47 (7.0)

2.07 (1.29–3.32)**

1.63 (0.98–2.71)

 Do not know

308 (33.3

194 (28.9)

0.86 (0.69–1.07)

1.10 (0.87–1.40)

  1. AOR adjusted odds ratio, CI confidence interval, GHQ General Health Questionnaire, OR odds ratio
  2. Psychological distress was measured using the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12), and a total score of GHQ-12 > 2 was used to define high psychological distress
  3. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001